Verification of chlorine exposure via LC-MS/MS analysis of base hydrolyzed chlorophenols from chlorotyrosine-protein adducts.

Inhalation of chlorine gas, with subsequent hydrolysis in the airway and lungs to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), can cause pulmonary edema (i.e., fluid build-up in the lungs), pulmonary inflammation (with or without infection), respiratory failure, and death. The HOCl produced from chlorine is known to react with tyrosine to form adducts via electrophilic aromatic substitution, resulting in 3-chlorotyrosine and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine adducts. While several analysis methods are available for determining these adducts, each method has significant disadvantages. Hence, a simple and sensitive ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for the determination of chlorotyrosine adducts. The sample preparation involves base hydrolysis of isolated plasma proteins to form 2-chlorophenol (CP) from monochlorotyrosine adducts and 2,6-dichlorophenol (2,6-DCP), from dichlorotyrosine adducts, as markers of chlorine exposure. The chlorophenols are extracted with cyclohexane prior to UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. The method produced excellent sensitivity for 2,6-DCP with a limit of detection of 2.2 µg/kg, calibration curve linearity extending from 0.054-54 mg/kg (R2 ≥ 0.9997 and %RA > 94), and accuracy and precision of 100 ± 14 %, and <15 % relative standard deviation, respectively. The sensitivity of the method for 2-CP was relatively poor, so it was used only as a secondary marker for severe chlorine exposure. The method successfully detected elevated levels of 2,6-DCP from hypochlorite-spiked plasma protein and plasma protein isolated from chlorine-exposed rats.

TLR4 Ligation by eNAMPT, a Novel DAMP, is Essential to Sulfur Mustard- Induced Inflammatory Lung Injury and Fibrosis.

Objective: Human and preclinical studies of sulfur mustard (SM)-induced acute and chronic lung injuries highlight the role of unremitting inflammation. We assessed the utility of targeting the novel DAMP and TLR4 ligand, eNAMPT (extracellular nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase), utilizing a humanized mAb (ALT-100) in rat models of SM exposure. Methods: Acute (SM 4.2 mg/kg, 24 hrs), subacute (SM 0.8 mg/kg, day 7), subacute (SM 2.1 mg/kg, day 14), and chronic (SM 1.2 mg/kg, day 29) SM models were utilized. Results: Each SM model exhibited significant increases in eNAMPT expression (lung homogenates) and increased levels of phosphorylated NFkB and NOX4. Lung fibrosis (Trichrome staining) was observed in both sub-acute and chronic SM models in conjunction with elevated smooth muscle actin (SMA), TGFß, and IL-1ß expression. SM-exposed rats receiving ALT-100 (1 or 4 mg/kg, weekly) exhibited increased survival, highly significant reductions in histologic/biochemical evidence of lung inflammation and fibrosis (Trichrome staining, decreased pNFkB, SMA, TGFß, NOX4), decreased airways strictures, and decreased plasma cytokine levels (eNAMPT, IL-6, IL-1ß. TNFα). Conclusion: The highly druggable, eNAMPT/TLR4 signaling pathway is a key contributor to SM-induced ROS production, inflammatory lung injury and fibrosis. The ALT-100 mAb is a potential medical countermeasure to address the unmet need to reduce SM-associated lung pathobiology/mortality.

Identification and determination of phenyl methyl carbamate released from adducted hemoglobin for methyl isocyanate exposure verification.

Methyl isocyanate (MIC), an intermediate in the synthesis of carbamate pesticides, is a toxic industrial chemical that causes irritation and damage to the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin. Due to the high reactivity of MIC, it binds to proteins to form protein adducts. While these adducts can be used as biomarkers to verify exposure to MIC, methods to detect MIC adducts are cumbersome, typically involving enzymatic (pronase) or strong acid (Edman degradation) hydrolysis of hemoglobin. Hence, in this study, a simple method was developed which utilizes base hydrolysis of MIC-tyrosine adducts from isolated hemoglobin to form phenyl methyl carbamate (PMC), followed by rapid liquid-liquid extraction, and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The hydrolysis chemistry is the first report of base hydrolysis of a tyrosine-ß-C-hydroxo phenol bond in aqueous solution. The method produced excellent sensitivity (detection limit of 0.02 mg/kg), linearity (R2 = 0.998, percent residual accuracies > 96), and dynamic range (0.06‒15 mg/kg). The accuracy and precision (100 ± 9% and < 10% relative standard deviation, respectively) of the method were outstanding compared to existing techniques. The validated method was able to detect significantly elevated levels of PMC from hemoglobin isolated from MIC-exposed rats.

Alleviation of methyl isocyanate-induced airway obstruction and mortality by tissue plasminogen activator.

Methyl isocyanate (MIC, "Bhopal agent") is a highly reactive, toxic industrial chemical. Inhalation of high levels (500-1000 ppm) of MIC vapor is almost uniformly fatal. No therapeutic interventions other than supportive care have been described that can delay the onset of illness or death due to MIC. Recently, we found that inhalation of MIC caused the appearance of activated tissue factor in circulation with subsequent activation of the coagulation cascade. Herein, we report that MIC exposure (500 ppm for 30 min, nose-only) caused deposition of fibrin-rich casts in the conducting airways resulting in respiratory failure and death within 24 h in a rat model (LC90-100 ). We thus investigated the effect of airway delivery of the fibrinolytic agent tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) on mortality and morbidity in this model. Intratracheal administration of tPA was initiated 11 h post MIC exposure and repeated every 4 h for the duration of the study. Treatment with tPA afforded nearly 60% survival at 24 h post MIC exposure and was associated with decreased airway fibrin casts, stabilization of hypoxemia and respiratory distress, and improved acidosis. This work supports the potential of airway-delivered tPA therapy as a useful countermeasure in stabilizing victims of high-level MIC exposure.

Methyl isocyanate inhalation induces tissue factor-dependent activation of coagulation in rats.

Methyl isocyanate (MIC) is a highly toxic industrial chemical causing acute lethality after inhalation. The objective of this study was to determine whether alterations in hemostasis also occur in the immediate hours after exposure. Male rats were exposed to MIC (125-500 ppm) by nose-only vapor inhalation for 30 min. Arterial O2 saturation was monitored prior to exposure, and hourly thereafter. Rats were euthanized at 1, 2, 4, and 8 hr and plasma analyzed for recalcification clotting time, tissue factor (TF) activity, and protein levels. Hypoxemia, as assessed by pulse oximetry, was an early feature of MIC inhalation. In contrast to sham or low (125 ppm) concentrations, 250 and 500 ppm MIC caused significant declines in blood oxygen saturation (% SpO2) at 1 hr, which remained at deficit during the postexposure period. Commensurate with hypoxemia, plasma clotting time was significantly accelerated 1 hr after MIC inhalation (sham treatment: 955 ± 62.8 s; 125 ppm MIC: 790 ± 62 s; 250 ppm: 676 ± 28.0 s; 500 ppm: 581 ± 175 s). This procoagulant effect was transient, with no difference observed between sham and all MIC groups by 8 hr. Similarly, elevated TF activity and protein were detected in plasma 1 hr after MIC inhalation, each of which showed a progressive decline back to control levels at later timepoints. This study demonstrates that MIC inhalation resulted in hypoxemia and transient hypercoagulability of blood. Accelerated clotting occurred rapidly and was likely due to intravascular TF, which initiates the extrinsic coagulation pathway.

Determination of methyl isopropyl hydantoin from rat erythrocytes by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry to determine methyl isocyanate dose following inhalation exposure.

Methyl isocyanate (MIC) is an important precursor for industrial synthesis, but it is highly toxic. MIC causes irritation and damage to the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin. While current treatment is limited to supportive care and counteracting symptoms, promising countermeasures are being evaluated. Our work focuses on understanding the inhalation toxicity of MIC to develop effective therapeutic interventions. However, in-vivo inhalation exposure studies are limited by challenges in estimating the actual respiratory dose, due to animal-to-animal variability in breathing rate, depth, etc. Therefore, a method was developed to estimate the inhaled MIC dose based on analysis of an N-terminal valine hemoglobin adduct. The method features a simple sample preparation scheme, including rapid isolation of hemoglobin, hydrolysis of the hemoglobin adduct with immediate conversion to methyl isopropyl hydantoin (MIH), rapid liquid-liquid extraction, and gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry analysis. The method produced a limit of detection of 0.05 mg MIH/kg RBC precipitate with a dynamic range from 0.05-25 mg MIH/kg. The precision, as measured by percent relative standard deviation, was <8.5%, and the accuracy was within 8% of the nominal concentration. The method was used to evaluate a potential correlation between MIH and MIC internal dose and proved promising. If successful, this method may be used to quantify the true internal dose of MIC from inhalation studies to help determine the effectiveness of MIC therapeutics.

Oxygen Administration Improves Survival but Worsens Cardiopulmonary Functions in Chlorine-exposed Rats.

Chlorine is a highly reactive gas that can cause significant injury when inhaled. Unfortunately, its use as a chemical weapon has increased in recent years. Massive chlorine inhalation can cause death within 4 hours of exposure. Survivors usually require hospitalization after massive exposure. No countermeasures are available for massive chlorine exposure and supportive-care measures lack controlled trials. In this work, adult rats were exposed to chlorine gas (LD58-67) in a whole-body exposure chamber, and given oxygen (0.8 FiO2) or air (0.21 FiO2) for 6 hours after baseline measurements were obtained. Oxygen saturation, vital signs, respiratory distress and neuromuscular scores, arterial blood gases, and hemodynamic measurements were obtained hourly. Massive chlorine inhalation caused severe acute respiratory failure, hypoxemia, decreased cardiac output, neuromuscular abnormalities (ataxia and hypotonia), and seizures resulting in early death. Oxygen improved survival to 6 hours (87% versus 42%) and prevented observed seizure-related deaths. However, oxygen administration worsened the severity of acute respiratory failure in chlorine-exposed rats compared with controls, with increased respiratory acidosis (pH 6.91 ± 0.04 versus 7.06 ± 0.01 at 2 h) and increased hypercapnia (180.0 ± 19.8 versus 103.2 ± 3.9 mm Hg at 2 h). In addition, oxygen did not improve neuromuscular abnormalities, cardiac output, or respiratory distress associated with chlorine exposure. Massive chlorine inhalation causes severe acute respiratory failure and multiorgan damage. Oxygen administration can improve short-term survival but appears to worsen respiratory failure, with no improvement in cardiac output or neuromuscular dysfunction. Oxygen should be used with caution after massive chlorine inhalation, and the need for early assisted ventilation should be assessed in victims.

Editor's Highlight: Pulmonary Vascular Thrombosis in Rats Exposed to Inhaled Sulfur Mustard.

Sulfur mustard (SM) is a chemical warfare agent. When inhaled, SM causes significant injury to the respiratory tract. Although the mechanism involved in acute airway injury after SM inhalation has been well described previously, the mechanism of SM's contribution to distal lung vascular injury is not well understood. We hypothesized that acute inhalation of vaporized SM causes activated systemic coagulation with subsequent pulmonary vascular thrombi formation after SM inhalation exposure. Sprague Dawley rats inhaled SM ethanolic vapor (3.8 mg/kg). Barium/gelatin CT pulmonary angiograms were performed to assess for pulmonary vascular thrombi burden. Lung immunohistochemistry was performed for common procoagulant markers including fibrin(ogen), von Willebrand factor, and CD42d in control and SM-exposed lungs. Additionally, systemic levels of d-dimer and platelet aggregometry after adenosine diphosphate- and thrombin-stimulation were measured in plasma after SM exposure. In SM-exposed lungs, chest CT angiography demonstrated a significant decrease in the distal pulmonary vessel density assessed at 6 h postexposure. Immunohistochemistry also demonstrated increased intravascular fibrin(ogen), vascular von Willebrand factor, and platelet CD42d in the distal pulmonary vessels (<200 µm diameter). Circulating d-dimer levels were significantly increased (p < .001) at 6, 9, and 12 h after SM inhalation versus controls. Platelet aggregation was also increased in both adenosine diphosphate - (p < .01) and thrombin- (p < .001) stimulated platelet-rich plasma after SM inhalation. Significant pulmonary vascular thrombi formation was evident in distal pulmonary arterioles following SM inhalation in rats assessed by CT angiography and immunohistochemistry. Enhanced systemic platelet aggregation and activated systemic coagulation with subsequent thrombi formation likely contributed to pulmonary vessel occlusion.

Airway tissue plasminogen activator prevents acute mortality due to lethal sulfur mustard inhalation.

RATIONALE: Sulfur mustard (SM) is a chemical weapon stockpiled today in volatile regions of the world. SM inhalation causes a life-threatening airway injury characterized by airway obstruction from fibrin casts, which can lead to respiratory failure and death. Mortality in those requiring intubation is more than 80%. No therapy exists to prevent mortality after SM exposure. Our previous work using the less toxic analog of SM, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, identified tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) an effective rescue therapy for airway cast obstruction (Veress, L. A., Hendry-Hofer, T. B., Loader, J. E., Rioux, J. S., Garlick, R. B., and White, C. W. (2013). Tissue plasminogen activator prevents mortality from sulfur mustard analog-induced airway obstruction. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 48, 439-447). It is not known if exposure to neat SM vapor, the primary agent used in chemical warfare, will also cause death due to airway casts, and if tPA could be used to improve outcome. METHODS: Adult rats were exposed to SM, and when oxygen saturation reached less than 85% (median: 6.5 h), intratracheal tPA or placebo was given under isoflurane anesthesia every 4 h for 48 h. Oxygen saturation, clinical distress, and arterial blood gases were assessed. Microdissection was done to assess airway obstruction by casts. RESULTS: Intratracheal tPA treatment eliminated mortality (0% at 48 h) and greatly improved morbidity after lethal SM inhalation (100% death in controls). tPA normalized SM-associated hypoxemia, hypercarbia, and lactic acidosis, and improved respiratory distress. Moreover, tPA treatment resulted in greatly diminished airway casts, preventing respiratory failure from airway obstruction. CONCLUSIONS: tPA given via airway more than 6 h after exposure prevented death from lethal SM inhalation, and normalized oxygenation and ventilation defects, thereby rescuing from respiratory distress and failure. Intra-airway tPA should be considered as a life-saving rescue therapy after a significant SM inhalation exposure incident.

Intratracheal heparin improves plastic bronchitis due to sulfur mustard analog.

BACKGROUND: Inhalation of sulfur mustard (SM) and SM analog, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), cause fibrinous cast formation that occludes the conducting airways, similar to children with Fontan physiology-induced plastic bronchitis. These airway casts cause significant mortality and morbidity, including hypoxemia and respiratory distress. Our hypothesis was that intratracheal heparin, a highly cost effective and easily preserved rescue therapy, could reverse morbidity and mortality induced by bronchial cast formation. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 7.5% CEES via nose-only aerosol inhalation to produce extensive cast formation and mortality. The rats were distributed into three groups: non-treated, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)-treated, and heparin-treated groups. Morbidity was assessed with oxygen saturations and clinical distress. Blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were obtained for analysis, and lungs were fixed for airway microdissection to quantify the extent of airway cast formation. RESULTS: Heparin, given intratracheally, improved survival (100%) when compared to non-treated (75%) and PBS-treated (90%) controls. Heparin-treated rats also had improved oxygen saturations, clinical distress and airway cast scores. Heparin-treated rats had increased thrombin clotting times, factor Xa inhibition and activated partial thromboplastin times, indicating systemic absorption of heparin. There were also increased red blood cells (RBCs) in the BALF in 2/6 heparin-treated rats compared to PBS-treated control rats. CONCLUSIONS: Intratracheal heparin 1 hr after CEES inhalation improved survival, oxygenation, airway obstruction, and clinical distress. There was systemic absorption of heparin in rats treated intratracheally. Some rats had increased RBCs in BALF, suggesting a potential for intrapulmonary bleeding if used chronically after SM inhalation.

Antifibrinolytic mechanisms in acute airway injury after sulfur mustard analog inhalation.

Acute lung injury in response to mustard gas (sulfur mustard [SM]) inhalation results in formation of fibrin casts, which obstruct the airway. The objective of this study was to identify fibrinolytic pathways that could be contributing to the persistence of airway casts after SM exposure. Rats were exposed to the SM analog, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, via nose-only aerosol inhalation. At 4 and 18 hours after exposure, animals were killed and airway-capillary leak estimated by measuring bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) protein and IgM content. The fibrin clot-degrading and plasminogen-activating capabilities of BALF were also assessed by activity assays, whereas Western blotting was used to determine the presence and activities of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, thrombin activatable fibrinolytic inhibitor and α2-antiplasmin. Measurement of tissue-specific steady-state mRNA levels was also conducted for each fibrinolytic inhibitor to assess whether its synthesis occurs in lung or at extrapulmonary sites. The results of this study demonstrate that fibrin-degrading and plasminogen-activating capabilities of the airways become impaired during the onset of 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced vascular leak. Findings of functionally active reservoirs of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, and α2-antiplasmin in BALF indicate that airway fibrinolysis is inhibited at multiple levels in response to SM.

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor prevents airway obstruction, respiratory failure and death due to sulfur mustard analog inhalation.

UNLABELLED: Sulfur mustard (SM) inhalation causes airway injury, with enhanced vascular permeability, coagulation, and airway obstruction. The objective of this study was to determine whether recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) could inhibit this pathogenic sequence. METHODS: Rats were exposed to the SM analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES) via nose-only aerosol inhalation. One hour later, TFPI (1.5mg/kg) in vehicle, or vehicle alone, was instilled into the trachea. Arterial O2 saturation was monitored using pulse oximetry. Twelve hours after exposure, animals were euthanized and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and plasma were analyzed for prothrombin, thrombin-antithrombin complex (TAT), active plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels, and fluid fibrinolytic capacity. Lung steady-state PAI-1 mRNA was measured by RT-PCR analysis. Airway-capillary leak was estimated by BALF protein and IgM, and by pleural fluid measurement. In additional animals, airway cast formation was assessed by microdissection and immunohistochemical detection of airway fibrin. RESULTS: Airway obstruction in the form of fibrin-containing casts was evident in central conducting airways of rats receiving CEES. TFPI decreased cast formation, and limited severe hypoxemia. Findings of reduced prothrombin consumption, and lower TAT complexes in BALF, demonstrated that TFPI acted to limit thrombin activation in airways. TFPI, however, did not appreciably affect CEES-induced airway protein leak, PAI-1 mRNA induction, or inhibition of the fibrinolytic activity present in airway surface liquid. CONCLUSIONS: Intratracheal administration of TFPI limits airway obstruction, improves gas exchange, and prevents mortality in rats with sulfur mustard-analog-induced acute lung injury.

Tissue plasminogen activator prevents mortality from sulfur mustard analog-induced airway obstruction.

Sulfur mustard (SM) inhalation causes the rare but life-threatening disorder of plastic bronchitis, characterized by bronchial cast formation, resulting in severe airway obstruction that can lead to respiratory failure and death. Mortality in those requiring intubation is greater than 80%. To date, no antidote exists for SM toxicity. In addition, therapies for plastic bronchitis are solely anecdotal, due to lack of systematic research available to assess drug efficacy in improving mortality and/or morbidity. Adult rats exposed to SM analog were treated with intratracheal tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) (0.15-0.7 mg/kg, 5.5 and 6.5 h), compared with controls (no treatment, isoflurane, and placebo). Respiratory distress and pulse oximetry were assessed (for 12 or 48 h), and arterial blood gases were obtained at study termination (12 h). Microdissection of fixed lungs was done to assess airway obstruction by casts. Optimal intratracheal tPA treatment (0.7 mg/kg) completely eliminated mortality (0% at 48 h), and greatly improved morbidity in this nearly uniformly fatal disease model (90-100% mortality at 48 h). tPA normalized plastic bronchitis-associated hypoxemia, hypercarbia, and lactic acidosis, and improved respiratory distress (i.e., clinical scores) while decreasing airway fibrin casts. Intratracheal tPA diminished airway-obstructive fibrin-containing casts while improving clinical respiratory distress, pulmonary gas exchange, tissue oxygenation, and oxygen utilization in our model of severe chemically induced plastic bronchitis. Most importantly, mortality, which was associated with hypoxemia and clinical respiratory distress, was eliminated.